Individual difference – It refers to distinctiveness and variation among people characteristic and their behavior pattern.
Peoples are unique and differ in terms of their physical and psychological attributes.
Physical characterstics such as height , weight, eye color ,etc
Psychological characteristics such as intelligence level,interest, aptitude, behavior
Situationism – Situationist state that the situation and circumstances in which one is placed influences one behavior.
Assessment – It is the first step in understanding a psychological attribute.
Assessment refers to the measurement of psychological attributes of an individual and their evaluation.
TYPE OF ASSESSMENT
There are 3 type of assessment , discussed below:-
1.Formal Assessment- Formal assessments are the ones which are standardized, organized and objective.
2. Informal Assessment- It varies from one person to another and is open to subjective interpretation.
3. Psychometric Assessment- It is a systematic testing procedure used to evaluate abilities, behavior and personal qualities of an individual.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTE
There are severe psychological attributes that come into focus whenever we perform psychological assessment.
1.Intelligence – Intelligence defined as the global capacity of an individual to understand the world, think rationally & logically, and use available resources effectively and efficiently .
2.Aptitude- It refers to individual underlying potential for acquiring skill. Aptitude tests are used to predict what an individual will be able to do , if given proper training and environment.
3. Interest- It refers to an individual preference for engaging in one or more specific activities relative to each other.
4. Personality- Personality is a relatively permanent feature that distinguishes a person from others.
5.Values- Values are beliefs about an ideal mode of behavior.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Psychologists measure personality traits using a variety of approaches, which are described here.
- Psychological test:Â A psychological test is an objective and standardized measure of an individual’s mental and behavioral characteristics.
- Interview: It involves seeking information from a person on a one-to-one basis.Â
- A case study is an in-depth study of an individual in terms of his psychological attributes, psychological history, medical history, family history, education, and qualifications in relation to his physical and psychological environment.Â
- Observation: It involves employing systematic, organized, and objective procedures to record behavioral phenomena occurring naturally in real time. Observation includes selecting a certain behavior, recording it using symbols or images, and then analyzing the recorded behavior.
- Self-respect is a method in which a person provides factual information about himself, his opinion, or the belief that he holds.
INTELLIGENCE AND ITS THEORIES
Intelligence is the key attribute that helps us to know how an individual is different from each other.
Several definitions provided by notable psychologists are:
Oxford dictionary- It explains intelligence as the power of perceiving , learning, understanding and knowing.
Alfred Binet- First psychologist who worked on intelligence. According to him, intelligence is the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well.
Wechsler- His intelligence tests are most widely used around the world. According to him, intelligence refers to the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with his environment.
Intelligence refers to a person who is capable of thinking, acting, and dealing with the world around you. It is the ability to think smartly, make good decisions and solve problems.
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
There are two approaches on the basis of which theories of intelligence differ and categorize.
1.Psychometric approach :- It expresses the individual’s performance in terms of a single index of cognitive abilities.
Cognitive abilities such as problem solving , memory , reasoning etc.
Psychometric approaches quantify how smart a person is based on their performance on standardized tests.
Theories come under psychometric approach are :-
i) uni/ one factor theory
ii) Two factor theory
iii) Theory of primary mental abilities
iv) Structure of intellectual model
2. Information processing approach- It describes the process people use in intellectual reasoning and problem solving.
It views how efficiently someone processes information.
Its main focus is on how an intelligent person acts.
Theories come under information processing approaches are :-
i) Theory of multiple intelligence
ii) Triarchic theory
iii) PASS Model theory
Let discuss these theories one by one
PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACHES
1)Uni/ One Factor Theory – Theory given by Alfred Binet
He is the first psychologist who tries to formalize the concept of intelligence in terms of mental operation.
Theory focuses on measuring mental abilities to understand how well someone can solve problems, learn and adapt with having one similar set of abilities.
2. Two Factor Theory – Given by Charles Spearman in 1927
He employs a statistical method called factor analysis.
The theory composed of two factor G factor and S factor
G factor – General factors that represent overall performance on all cognitive tasks.
S factor – Specific factor represent specific abilities or skills that are more task specific.
Person high on one skill ( s-factor ) their performance in areas is also influenced by their overall level of performance ( g-factor)
Example – Excellent, singer, architect, scientist, athletics may be high on g factor but in addition to this, they may have specific abilities which allow them excel in their respective domain.
3.Theory of primary mental abilities – Given by Thurstone.
It states that intelligence consists of 7 primary mental abilities which are independent of others.
Thurstone suggest that intelligence is composed of several abilities rather than single factors.
Here are those seven abilities :-
i) Verbal Comprehension- State as ability to understand and use words fluently and efficiently.
ii) Numerical Ability- It refers to the capacity for solving mathematical solutions, reasoning , computation and problem solving questions.
iii) Spatial visualization- It refers to an ability of an individual to visualize and manipulate objects and shape mentally.
They can create patterns by using their creative visualization techniques.
iv) Perceptual speed- it focuses on an individual speed in perceiving details.
Emphasis given on the cognitive ability of a person to perceive information through their sense organ and process that information quickly and accurately that help them to make quick decisions.
v) Word fluency – It refers to an ability to produce words fluently and flexibiliy. Individuals high on this aspect are good in their vocabulary.
vi) Memory – it refers to an ability to retain and recall information whenever required.
vii) Inductive Reasoning – It refers to an ability to analyze and solve problems logically and effectively.
4. Hierarchical Model of Intelligence – Given by Arther Jensen.
It focu on individual abilities operating at two levels :-
Level 1- Associative learning in which output is more or less similar to input.
Level 2 – Cognitive competencies in which high order skills transform input to produce an effective output.
5. Structure of intellectual intelligence – Given by J.P. Guilford
J.P. Guilford theory emphasis to understand how people think and learn.
He breaks intelligence into different components. These component are discussed below :-
i) Operations- Are the basic mental processes like remembering , receiving , perceiving and thinking.
It works as a tool to understand things.
ii) Content – It refers to what your brain works with like word, visual , auditory symptoms.
iii) Products – These are the outcomes. Outcome in which information is processed by the respondent.
It is classified as units, classes, relations, systems, transformation and implications.
The model in total consists of 180 cells.
INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACHES –
1.Theory of Multiple Intelligence – Given by Howard Gardner
According to Gardner intelligence is not a single entity rather a distinct type of intelligence exists.
Each of these intelligences are independent of each other.
The different type of intelligence are discussed below :-
1.Linguistic intelligence – It is one of the intelligences in which the person has good skills of using and producing language.
People high on these are word smart.
Poet, writer, scriptor , director are high on this intelligence.
2. Logical- mathematical – Person having skills in scientific thinking and problem solving.
Person high on this can think logically and critically
They are able to manipulate symbols to solve problems and mathematical equations.
Scientists, mathematicians, Nobel prize winners are high on this intelligence.
3. Spatial- Person having skills in forming visual images and patterns are high on spatial intelligence.
People high on the skill of forming , using and transforming mental images into reality.
Painters, sculptors, interior decorators , surgeons are high on these skills.
4. Musical – Person who has a good understanding of musical rhythms and patterns.
Person high on this can create and manipulate sounds.
5.Bodily – kinesthetic- Person who has the ability to use the whole or portion of the body flexibly and creatively.
Actors, Athletic, dancers, gymnastics.
6. Interpersonal – Skills of understanding the motives, feelings and behavior of other people.
Interpersonal skills help us to communicate easily with others , able to share our thoughts easily and understand the emotions of others.
Psychologists, counselors, social workers , and religious leaders are high on this aspect.
7. Intrapersonal- it refers to our ability of being aware of one’s own feelings, motives and desires.
They use their feelings and thoughts to understand others.
Philosophers and spiritual leaders are high on this intelligence.
8. Naturalist – Sensitivity toward the features of the natural world.
Person high on this ability is able to understand the natural world easily.
They have a good conceptual understanding of flora and fauna.
Hunters, farmers and tourist guides are high on this intelligence.